2026 Winter Olympics

Ø. Skattebo, Marcos Martin‐Rincon, J. A. L. Calbet, J. Hallén, Hans-Christer Holmberg

Performance in endurance sports reflects a complex interplay between physiological, biomechanical, neuromuscular and psychological factors, nutrition, and environmental conditions. This review focuses on physiological factors, particularly on the determinants of maximal oxygen uptake ( V̇$$ \dot{V} $$ O2max), its fractional utilization during competition, and examines how these interact with sport‐specific demands and conditions anticipated at the Milano‐Cortina 2026 Winter Olympics. We highlight that systemic O2 delivery, determined by the product of cardiac output and arterial O2 content, is the primary limiting factor of V̇$$ \dot{V} $$ O2max in elite athletes. However, invasive data on elite female athletes are scarce, and more research is needed. Well‐developed peripheral characteristics, such as a high mitochondrial density and capillarisation, are important determinants of fractional utilization of V̇$$ \dot{V} $$ O2max, but also support high muscle O2 extraction, which may reach values above 95% in elite endurance athletes, including cross‐country skiers. However, most values of fractional utilization of V̇$$ \dot{V} $$ O2max in the literature are calculated estimates based on performance determinants and race times, and more research with direct, continuous O2 uptake measurements during simulated competitions is needed. In endurance sports with undulating terrain race profiles (uphill, downhill, flats), such as cross‐country skiing and biathlon, the resulting intermittent exercise intensity creates substantial fluctuations in external power output. As a result, O2 demands may reach 100%–160% of V̇$$ \dot{V} $$ O2max in uphill sections, facilitated by transient but profound anaerobic energy contributions. Thus, the ability to recover anaerobic energy sources in downhill sections and repeatedly use them throughout the race emerges as a critical performance determinant and an avenue for further research, as well as how these abilities influence fractional utilization of V̇$$ \dot{V} $$ O2max in intermittent sports. Environmental factors, including moderate altitude (Biathlon will be held in Antholz at ~1650 m) and cold temperatures, exert modest but relevant influences on performance. Understanding these integrative mechanisms is essential for optimizing training and competition strategies for endurance sports at the Winter Olympics and beyond.

B. Sperlich, Hans-Christer Holmberg

The Milano‐Cortina 2026 Winter Olympics present an opportunity to synthesize evolving paradigms in endurance training within the broader context of long‐term athlete development. As Olympic winter sports span from endurance‐limited events to disciplines in which aerobic fitness primarily serves as a feeder capacity, a single training model is insufficient. In this narrative review, we propose a dual framework: (1) a demand‐driven, athlete‐centered, data‐supported model for Endurance‐Limited sports (e.g., cross‐country skiing, biathlon) and (2) a Feeder‐Function model for sports in which endurance primarily supports recovery, training tolerance, and resilience (e.g., freestyle skiing, snowboarding, sliding sports). Within this framework, we narratively synthesize and critically evaluate the literature across key domains, including individualized volume–intensity architectures, the integration of concurrent strength training, and the strategic use of multimodal stress stacking (e.g., hypoxia, heat). We further address the operationalization of emerging performance constructs such as durability, fatigability, resilience, and repeatability. We also present a heuristic tier framework describing when endurance acts as a primary performance limiter versus a supporting capacity across Olympic winter sports. Subsequently, we examine the role of advanced technologies, from multisensor wearables and analytics to mechanistic approaches (e.g., multiomics), highlighting their potential to shift practice from passive monitoring to active, individualized modeling. Future research priorities include validating field‐based operational metrics, defining minimal effective endurance doses for feeder‐function sports, and developing interpretable, athlete‐centered decision‐support tools. By aligning sport‐specific demands with individualized, evidence‐informed prescription, this dual‐framework approach offers a perspective to guide interpretation and future applied work for scientists, coaches, and athletes preparing for Milano‐Cortina 2026 and beyond.

B. Sperlich, C. Zoppirolli, F. Hettinga, L. Hannigan, Steffi L. Colyer, J. F. Vigh-Larsen, A. Fornasiero, Hans-Christer Holmberg

As the Milano‐Cortina 2026 Winter Olympics approach, a consolidated understanding of performance determinants across the diverse spectrum of ice sports is crucial, yet the scientific literature remains unevenly distributed. This structured narrative review synthesizes available evidence on key performance‐determining factors and contemporary training characteristics for Olympic ice sports, based on topic‐driven literature searches and qualitative synthesis. Disciplines are grouped according to their primary performance demands. (1) High‐volume gliding sports (long‐ and short‐track speed skating): Performance balances biomechanical efficiency (e.g., aerodynamic posture) against physiological constraints. This necessitates high annual training volumes (900–1100 h·year−1), polarized, mixed‐modal training, with short‐track adding critical tactical and pack‐dynamic elements. (2) Exposure‐driven gravity sports (bobsleigh, skeleton, luge): Performance is overwhelmingly determined by start velocity, with the initial 15–65 m contributing disproportionately to overall race outcome. Bobsleigh and skeleton training mirrors sprint athletes, prioritizing lower‐body power, while luge demands explosive upper‐body strength. (3) Arena‐based sports (ice hockey, figure skating, curling): These sports show varied demands. Ice hockey requires managing high‐intensity intermittent efforts, with 40%–50% of on‐ice distance performed at high skating speeds; figure skating hinges on the power and precision of high‐value jumps (e.g., triple and quadruple rotations); and curling relies on delivery accuracy and sweeping strength‐endurance. Sex‐specific differences, often related to absolute power output (skating, sliding) and biomechanics, are evident, although evidence remains limited or uneven across several disciplines. Rather than providing prescriptive training models, this review identifies discipline‐specific training priorities and key gaps in the current evidence base relevant to athlete preparation for Milano‐Cortina 2026.

Luca Fiorillo, V. Ronsivalle, M. Cicciu

The Milano-Cortina 2026 Winter Olympic Games highlighted the persistent risk of craniofacial injuries across multiple high-velocity winter sports. This editorial reviews the most clinically relevant injury events, including a severe periorbital skate-blade trauma resulting in zygomatic fracture during short-track speed skating, as well as concussive and cervical injury patterns observed in sliding and alpine disciplines. Despite advances in protective equipment, significant vulnerabilities remain, particularly in facial protection and impact mitigation. Current standards in several sports appear insufficient to address predictable mechanisms of craniofacial trauma. The evidence discussed underscores the need for improved, sport-specific protective strategies and stronger implementation of evidence-based safety regulations. Enhanced preventive measures may reduce the burden of craniofacial injuries in future Olympic competitions.

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